From Roman Rule to the Modern Revival (146 BCE – Present Day)
By the late Hellenistic period, Greek wine had reached nearly every corner of the Mediterranean world. It was prized in Rome, Persia, and Egypt, and its production methods set the standard for viticulture across Europe, North Africa, and the Near East. However, as Greece fell under Roman dominion (146 BCE), a profound transformation in its wine culture began.
This period, spanning over two millennia, witnessed both the decline and resurgence of Greek wine. Under Roman rule, Greek vineyards faced stiff competition from Italian estates. The Byzantine Empire (330–1453 CE) preserved many ancient winemaking traditions, but centuries of foreign domination—from the Ottomans to the Venetians—challenged Greek viticulture. It was only in the 19th and 20th centuries that Greece began reclaiming its place in the global wine world.
This final chapter traces the journey of Greek wine from antiquity to the modern renaissance, exploring its struggles, innovations, and enduring legacy.
1. Greek Wine Under Roman Rule (146 BCE – 330 CE)
With the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BCE, the once-dominant Greek wine trade faced a dramatic shift. Rome, having adopted Greek viticultural techniques, no longer depended on Greek imports and instead cultivated its own vineyards in Campania, Etruria, and Hispania. While Greek wines remained highly regarded, Roman viticulture soon overshadowed Greece’s production.
Greek Influence on Roman Wine
Despite this decline, Greece’s role in shaping Roman winemaking was profound.
The Romans adopted Greek pruning techniques, vineyard terraces, and amphora storage methods.
Greek grape varieties, such as Ariousios (from Chios) and Pramnios (from Lesbos), influenced Roman blends.
Many of Rome’s most prestigious wines—such as Falernian and Caecuban—originated from Greek cultivars.
By the 1st century CE, Rome’s vast empire had expanded viticulture across Gaul, Germania, and Britannia, further marginalising Greek wines. However, Greek vineyards remained operational, producing high-quality sweet and aged wines, often exported for religious and medicinal use.
2. The Byzantine Era: The Sacred Preservation of Greek Wine (330–1453 CE)
With the founding of Constantinople in 330 CE, the Byzantine Empire became the spiritual and cultural successor to Rome, and Greek wine experienced a revival.
Wine and the Orthodox Church
The rise of Christianity played a crucial role in preserving Greek viticulture.
Wine was integral to the Divine Liturgy, leading monasteries to safeguard ancient vineyards.
Monastic winemaking became the backbone of Byzantine viticulture, particularly in regions such as Mount Athos, Patmos, and Meteora.
Certain Greek wines, such as Malvasia (Monemvasia) and Nama (the predecessor of Communion wine), became symbols of religious and commercial prestige.
Byzantine wines were widely exported to Venice, Genoa, and the Muslim world, often commanding high prices in Mediterranean markets. Despite economic and military challenges, Greek wine retained its prominence, serving both liturgical and aristocratic consumption.
3. Ottoman Rule: The Struggle for Survival (1453–1830)
The fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the subsequent Ottoman conquest of Greece posed the greatest challenge yet for Greek viticulture.
Islamic Restrictions and the Decline of Winemaking
The Ottoman Empire, an Islamic state, imposed heavy taxes on wine production, discouraging large-scale viticulture.
Many vineyards were abandoned, and traditional wine knowledge risked being lost.
However, in Christian-majority regions (such as Crete and the Aegean islands), wine production continued, albeit in smaller, more clandestine forms.
The Venetian and Western Influence
Certain Greek regions under Venetian rule—such as Crete, the Ionian Islands, and Cyprus—maintained their wine culture, exporting wines like Commandaria to European courts.
Commandaria, Cyprus’ famous dessert wine, was considered the world’s oldest named wine still in production and was prized by Richard the Lionheart.
The Venetians fostered trade networks that helped preserve Greek winemaking traditions, particularly in Santorini, Cephalonia, and Zakynthos.
While the Ottoman period curtailed Greek viticulture, small monasteries and island communities preserved ancient winemaking techniques, ensuring the survival of Greece’s historic vineyards.
4. The 19th and 20th Century Revival: From Crisis to Modernisation
The Greek War of Independence and the Birth of the Modern Wine Industry (1830–1900)
With Greek independence in 1830, the country embarked on a long journey to revive its historic vineyards. However, the 19th century proved turbulent:
The Phylloxera Epidemic (late 19th century) devastated many Greek vineyards, forcing winemakers to replant using resistant rootstocks.
Economic struggles and rural migration hindered large-scale viticulture.
Yet, by the early 20th century, Greece saw a renewed focus on quality winemaking, with regions like Nemea, Naoussa, and Santorini emerging as new centres of viticultural excellence.
The Rise of Boutari and Tsantali (1900–1970s)
In 1879, Yiannis Boutaris founded what would become one of Greece’s most influential wineries, pioneering the revival of Xinomavro.
Tsantali, founded in 1890, played a crucial role in restoring Mount Athos’ monastic winemaking traditions.
Despite wars, economic crises, and political instability, Greece’s wine industry slowly rebuilt itself.
5. The Contemporary Greek Wine Renaissance (1980–Present Day)
The late 20th and early 21st centuries marked a new golden age for Greek wine.
Modern Innovations and the Rise of Terroir-Driven Wines
Since the 1980s, Greece has seen:
The resurgence of indigenous grape varieties, such as Assyrtiko, Agiorgitiko, and Xinomavro.
Investment in modern winemaking techniques, blending tradition with technology.
The establishment of Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) regions, enhancing global recognition.
Today, Greek wines are internationally acclaimed, with Santorini’s Assyrtiko, Naoussa’s Xinomavro, and Nemea’s Agiorgitiko standing alongside the world’s finest.
Conclusion: The Eternal Legacy of Greek Wine
From Dionysian rituals to Byzantine monasteries, from Ottoman struggles to modern innovation, Greek wine has endured millennia of transformation. While once overshadowed by Roman and later French and Italian viticulture, Greece has reclaimed its place on the world stage.
As Greek winemakers continue to balance ancient wisdom with cutting-edge techniques, the wines of Greece stand as a testament to resilience, heritage, and the timeless bond between culture and the vine.
The history of Greek wine is far from over—it is still being written, with each vintage carrying the legacy of 7000 years of tradition.
The History of Wine in Italy: Part I — From Mythology to the Etruscan and Early Roman Eras (circa 6000 BCE – 100 BCE)
The history of Italian wine is as ancient and complex as the land itself, intertwined with the myths of gods and heroes, the ingenuity of early civilizations, and the conquests that shaped the Mediterranean world. Italy’s viticultural past stretches back at least 8,000 years, with archaeological evidence indicating that the earliest inhabitants of the Italian Peninsula cultivated wild grapes long before recorded history.
From mythological origins, where wine was the gift of gods like Bacchus (Dionysus) and Liber Pater, to the sophisticated practices of the Etruscans, the evolution of Italian wine mirrors the rise of some of history’s greatest civilizations. By the time of the Roman Republic (509–27 BCE), Italy had become the epicentre of viticulture, influencing wine culture across Europe and the Mediterranean.
This first chapter explores the earliest origins of Italian wine, tracing its evolution from prehistoric times to the rise of Rome, examining the archaeological, literary, and historical records that have shaped Italy’s enduring wine legacy.
1. Mythology and the Divine Origins of Wine in Italy
Much like in Greece, wine in Italy was deeply connected to divine myths and religious traditions. The Romans identified Bacchus with the Greek Dionysus, the god of wine, pleasure, and fertility, whose cult spread throughout the ancient world.
Bacchus and Liber Pater: The Gods of Wine
The earliest Italian mythological traditions suggest that wine was a sacred gift, brought to humanity by the gods.
- Bacchus (Dionysus), worshipped in Greek and Roman culture, was believed to have taught mortals the art of winemaking.
- Liber Pater, an ancient Italic god, was the protector of viticulture and fertility, celebrated in the Liberalia festival (March 17th), where young men symbolically transitioned into adulthood with wine offerings.
These deities reflect wine’s centrality to ancient Italian society, not just as a drink but as a sacred conduit between gods and mortals.
The Legend of Oenotria: Italy as the Land of Wine
The ancient Greeks referred to southern Italy as “Oenotria”, meaning “Land of Vines.”
- This term appears in Hesiod’s Theogony and Homer’s Odyssey, suggesting that by the 8th century BCE, Greek travelers already recognized Italy’s potential for winemaking.
- According to legend, Oenotrus, son of Lycaon (King of Arcadia), migrated to Italy and taught its people viticulture, giving rise to Italy’s first organized wine culture.
These early myths underscore wine’s profound role in shaping Italy’s identity, long before the rise of the Etruscans and Romans.
2. The Prehistoric Roots of Italian Winemaking (6000–1000 BCE)
Archaeological Evidence of Early Viticulture
Scientific discoveries have confirmed that winemaking in Italy dates back thousands of years.
- Residues of ancient wild grape fermentation (Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris) have been found in Sicily and Calabria, dating to 4000 BCE.
- In Tuscany and the Po Valley, evidence suggests that Neolithic communities may have engaged in early forms of viticulture as early as 6000 BCE.
- Excavations in Sardinia’s Monte d’Accoddi have revealed grape seeds and primitive wine storage vessels, indicating that Nuragic civilization (1800–500 BCE) may have been among the earliest winemakers in the Mediterranean.
The Influence of Phoenicians and Mycenaeans (2000–1000 BCE)
During the Bronze Age, Italy was deeply influenced by Phoenician and Mycenaean traders, who introduced:
- Advanced fermentation techniques using amphorae.
- Selective breeding of grape varieties for higher sugar content and better fermentation.
- The practice of maritime trade in wines, linking Italy with Egypt, Greece, and the Levant.
By the Iron Age (1000 BCE), the Italian Peninsula was already home to multiple thriving wine cultures, setting the stage for the rise of Etruscan and Roman viticulture.
3. The Etruscans: Italy’s First Great Winemakers (900–300 BCE)
Long before Rome’s dominance, the Etruscans (900–300 BCE) of central Italy (modern-day Tuscany, Lazio, and Umbria) were the first civilization to establish organized, large-scale winemaking.
The Etruscan Contribution to Italian Wine
- They domesticated and cultivated wild grape varieties, refining early Italian viticulture.
- Their use of wooden barrels and terracotta amphorae improved wine storage and aging.
- They introduced pruned vineyard layouts, much like modern espalier training systems.
- They traded wines extensively, especially with the Greeks, Carthaginians, and Celts.
Archaeological Discoveries
- Etruscan tomb paintings from Tarquinia and Cerveteri (6th century BCE) depict elaborate wine-drinking scenes, suggesting that wine played a central role in religion, feasting, and daily life.
- Excavations in Poggio Civitate (Murlo, Tuscany) have uncovered fermentation vats, presses, and storage facilities, indicating advanced viticultural practices.
The Etruscans established Tuscany’s reputation as a viticultural heartland, a legacy that continues today in the famous Chianti and Brunello di Montalcino wines.
4. The Early Roman Republic and the Expansion of Viticulture (509–100 BCE)
With the rise of the Roman Republic (509 BCE–27 BCE), wine became a fundamental part of Roman society. The Romans adopted Etruscan and Greek techniques, refining them into what would become one of the most influential viticultural traditions in history.
The Spread of Roman Vineyards
- By 300 BCE, the Romans had established large-scale vineyards in Latium, Campania, and Apulia.
- The conquest of Sicily (241 BCE), Sardinia (238 BCE), and Cisalpine Gaul (200 BCE) expanded Rome’s wine territory.
- Vineyard cultivation laws, such as those outlined in Cato the Elder’s De Agri Cultura (160 BCE), provided the first structured Roman viticultural manuals.
Rome’s First Wine Regulations
The Romans introduced early wine laws, including:
- The Lex Licinia (121 BCE), which regulated the planting of vineyards.
- The Roman practice of Falernian wine aging, which pioneered controlled oxidation.
- The use of clay amphorae and wooden barrels, which allowed for long-distance wine trade across the Mediterranean.
By the end of the 2nd century BCE, Roman wines had surpassed Greek wines in commercial dominance, laying the foundation for the Golden Age of Roman viticulture.
Conclusion: The Birth of Italy’s Wine Identity
From prehistoric cultivation to the rise of the Etruscans and Romans, Italian wine developed as both an art and a necessity, deeply embedded in the country’s cultural, religious, and economic life.
As Rome expanded, Italian wine would soon reach every corner of the empire, influencing France, Spain, and Germany, and shaping the future of European viticulture.
This is only the beginning of the story. In Part II, we will explore the height of Roman winemaking, its influence on the world, and the transition from the Classical Age to the Middle Ages.
The History of Wine in Italy: Part II — The Roman Golden Age and the Transformation of Viticulture (100 BCE – 500 CE)
The second chapter in the history of Italian wine explores the height of Roman viticulture, a period that saw the codification of winemaking techniques, the spread of Italian vineyards across the empire, and the unprecedented rise of wine as a commodity, a cultural pillar, and a social necessity.
By the 1st century BCE, Italy had become the wine capital of the ancient world, with Roman viticulture surpassing that of Greece and Phoenicia. This period, which spans the final decades of the Republic (509–27 BCE) and the entirety of the Empire (27 BCE–476 CE), witnessed the industrialization of wine production, the codification of viticultural practices, and the expansion of Italian wines into the farthest reaches of the empire.
However, the fall of Rome in the 5th century CE would also bring about the decline of many vineyards, leading to a period of transformation in which new custodians, particularly Christian monastic orders, would preserve Italy’s vinous legacy.
This chapter traces the rise, peak, and gradual decline of Roman viticulture, examining the historical, archaeological, and literary records that document one of the most influential periods in wine history.
1. The Codification of Roman Winemaking (100 BCE – 27 BCE)
By the final century of the Roman Republic, viticulture had become a refined science. Roman scholars such as Cato the Elder (234–149 BCE), Varro (116–27 BCE), and Columella (4–70 CE) wrote extensively about vineyard management, grape selection, and fermentation techniques. Their writings codified many practices that remain fundamental to modern winemaking.
Key Innovations in Roman Viticulture
- Zoning and Terroir Awareness
- Romans recognized regional differences in wine quality. The earliest wine classifications were developed, distinguishing Falernian (Campania), Caecuban (Latium), and Mamertine (Sicily) wines as the finest in the empire.
- Pliny the Elder’s Naturalis Historia (77 CE) recorded the first ranking of wines based on terroir, marking an early precursor to today’s appellation systems (DOC, AOC, etc.).
- Large-Scale Vineyards and Mass Production
- Romans introduced latifundia—large estate vineyards—particularly in Campania, Etruria (Tuscany), and the Po Valley. These estates were often worked by enslaved laborers, making wine production highly efficient.
- Clay amphorae were replaced by wooden barrels (likely influenced by the Celts), allowing for longer aging and easier transportation.
- The Rise of Aged Wines
- Some wines, particularly Falernian, were aged for decades. Roman writers describe vintages exceeding 100 years, similar to modern high-end Bordeaux or Barolo.
- Romans were the first to recognize the importance of oxidation control, using resin (proto-vermouth) and honey to preserve wines.
- Exporting Italian Wine Across the Empire
- Italian wine became the first global commodity in history, shipped across the Mediterranean and beyond.
- Pompeii became the commercial hub of Roman viticulture, exporting millions of amphorae per year. Archaeological remains reveal taverns, storage facilities, and sophisticated winemaking equipment.
By the time of Augustus (27 BCE – 14 CE), Italian wine had achieved unparalleled prestige, setting the stage for the golden age of Roman viniculture.
2. The Golden Age of Roman Wine (27 BCE – 250 CE)
During the height of the Roman Empire, wine was not merely a drink—it was a status symbol, a medicinal tool, a religious offering, and an economic powerhouse.
Wine as a Status Symbol
- The elite drank vintage Falernian, Caecuban, and Surrentine wines, often mixed with exotic spices, saffron, and even pearls.
- The lower classes consumed Lora, a lower-quality wine made from the second pressing of grapes, similar to today’s vin de presse.
Wine and Religion
- Wine played a key role in Bacchic and Dionysian rituals, which, despite being outlawed in 186 BCE, persisted in underground sects.
- The emerging Christian faith adopted wine into Eucharistic rituals, laying the foundation for the Church’s future role in preserving winemaking traditions.
Rome’s Expansion of Vineyards Beyond Italy
As Rome’s empire expanded, so did its vineyards. The Romans planted vines across Europe, shaping the wine regions of France, Spain, and Germany:
- Gaul (France): Romans introduced vines to Bordeaux, Burgundy, and the Rhône Valley, regions that would later become the pillars of French viticulture.
- Hispania (Spain): Vineyards were established in Tarragona and Rioja, predecessors to Spain’s modern wine industry.
- Germania (Germany): Romans introduced viticulture along the Rhine and Mosel rivers, giving birth to German Riesling.
While Italy remained the epicentre of wine culture, these new vineyards would later surpass Roman production after the fall of the empire.
3. The Decline of Roman Viticulture (250–500 CE)
By the 3rd century CE, the golden age of Roman viticulture began to wane. Several factors contributed to the decline of Italian winemaking:
1. Overproduction and Economic Collapse
- By the 2nd century CE, wine production had surpassed demand, causing prices to drop.
- The Roman economy entered crisis mode (beginning with the Crisis of the Third Century, 235–284 CE), disrupting trade routes and vineyard economies.
2. Barbarian Invasions and Vineyard Destruction
- Between 300–500 CE, invasions by Goths, Vandals, and Huns devastated Italy’s rural landscape.
- Vineyards in northern and central Italy were abandoned, leading to a significant decline in wine production.
3. The Rise of Christianity and Changes in Wine Culture
- Christianity’s dominance led to the rejection of Bacchic rituals, diminishing wine’s association with excess and indulgence.
- However, Christian monastic orders began preserving viticulture, foreshadowing their crucial role in the medieval revival of Italian wine.
By 476 CE, the Western Roman Empire had collapsed, and with it, the dominance of Italian wine in global trade.
Conclusion: The Legacy of Roman Viticulture
Despite its decline, the Roman influence on wine culture endured. Many Roman innovations—aged wines, terroir-based classifications, amphora storage, and vineyard expansion—became the foundation of European viticulture.
In Part III, we will explore the medieval revival of Italian wine, the role of monastic orders, the Renaissance influence on winemaking, and the emergence of modern Italian wine regions.
The History of Wine in Italy: Part III — The Medieval Revival, Renaissance Evolution, and Modern Italian Wine (500 CE – Present)
The third and final chapter in the history of Italian wine chronicles its rebirth from the ruins of the Roman Empire, the evolution of winemaking through the Middle Ages and Renaissance, and its transformation into the modern world-class industry it is today.
Following the fall of Rome (476 CE), Italian viticulture entered a period of decline, with many vineyards abandoned due to economic collapse and political instability. However, Christian monastic orders, particularly the Benedictines and Cistercians, preserved winemaking traditions, laying the groundwork for the wine culture of the Middle Ages.
By the Renaissance (14th–17th centuries), wine once again became a symbol of prestige, sophistication, and commerce, as Florence, Venice, and Rome emerged as European cultural and economic powerhouses. The 19th and 20th centuries saw the modernization of Italian viticulture, leading to the appellation system (DOC/DOCG), the Super Tuscan revolution, and Italy’s rise as a global wine leader.
This final part examines the archaeological, literary, and historical evidence of wine’s medieval, Renaissance, and modern transformations, tracing how Italy regained—and ultimately exceeded—its ancient vinous supremacy.
1. The Medieval Revival of Italian Wine (500–1300 CE)
The early Middle Ages (5th–10th centuries) were a period of hardship for Italy. With the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, vineyards were left untended, and trade routes that once carried Italian wine across the empire disintegrated. However, two forces ensured the survival of viticulture: the Christian Church and feudal lords.
1.1 The Role of Monastic Orders in Preserving Wine Culture
As secular winemaking declined, monasteries became the custodians of viticulture, producing wine for:
- The Eucharist (Communion wine remained a sacred necessity).
- Sustenance (monks consumed wine as a staple of their diet).
- Trade (monastic wines became highly sought-after in medieval markets).
The Benedictines (founded in 529 CE) and Cistercians (founded in 1098 CE) played a crucial role in reviving vineyards, particularly in Tuscany, Umbria, and Lombardy. Their meticulous vineyard management laid the foundation for many of today’s famous Italian wine regions.
1.2 The Growth of Feudal Vineyards
- By the 11th century, Italian noble families began investing in vineyards. The Medici family in Tuscany and the Venetian merchant elite saw wine as a status symbol.
- Regional markets developed, particularly in Florence, Bologna, and Venice, where local wines were sold alongside imported French and Spanish varieties.
1.3 The Birth of Proto-Terroir Concepts
- The first medieval wine regulations emerged in Chianti and Piedmont, marking the origins of modern appellation laws.
- Trade documents from Venice (12th century) show Italian wines being exported to Northern Europe, reviving Italy’s position in the international market.
By the 13th century, Italy had regained its position as a major wine producer, setting the stage for the Renaissance transformation of viticulture.
2. The Renaissance and the Codification of Italian Wine (1300–1700 CE)
The Renaissance (14th–17th centuries) marked the rebirth of wine culture, as Italy’s art, commerce, and literature flourished. During this period, Italian viticulture became more refined, and wine once again became a symbol of sophistication, luxury, and intellectual pursuit.
2.1 The Role of the Renaissance in Wine Culture
- Italian humanists such as Petrarch and Leonardo da Vinci wrote about wine, emphasizing its cultural and artistic significance.
- Michelangelo’s family owned vineyards in Tuscany, and his letters mention the importance of terroir.
2.2 The First Attempts at Wine Classification
- In 1716, Cosimo III de’ Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, issued the first wine appellation law for Chianti, making it the earliest officially recognized wine region in history.
- Venetian merchants classified Amarone della Valpolicella as one of Italy’s finest wines, laying the groundwork for its modern DOCG status.
2.3 The Expansion of Italian Wine Trade
- By the 16th century, Italian wines were exported to France, England, and the Holy Roman Empire.
- The Venetian Republic controlled much of the European wine trade, competing with Bordeaux and Burgundy.
While Italian wine thrived during the Renaissance, the 17th and 18th centuries brought new challenges, particularly with French dominance in wine markets. However, Italy would soon reclaim its prestige in the modern era.
3. The Birth of Modern Italian Wine (1800–Present)
The 19th and 20th centuries saw Italy modernize its wine industry, transitioning from a medieval system of noble-owned vineyards to a dynamic global force.
3.1 The Impact of Phylloxera and Italian Resilience (19th Century)
- In the late 1800s, phylloxera devastated European vineyards, including those in Italy.
- Italian viticulturists adopted American rootstocks, saving many ancient varietals such as Nebbiolo, Sangiovese, and Aglianico.
- The unification of Italy (1861) led to national policies supporting vineyard expansion.
3.2 The Rise of the DOC and DOCG System (20th Century)
- In 1963, Italy introduced the DOC (Denominazione di Origine Controllata) system, inspired by France’s AOC model.
- In 1980, DOCG (Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita) was introduced, ensuring the highest quality designation for Italian wines.
- Iconic wines like Barolo, Brunello di Montalcino, and Chianti Classico became internationally recognized.
3.3 The Super Tuscan Revolution (1970s–Present)
- Frustration with DOC regulations led to the creation of Super Tuscans—high-quality wines that blended Sangiovese with international varietals (Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah).
- The success of wines like Sassicaia, Tignanello, and Ornellaia challenged the traditional classification system, ultimately reshaping Italy’s place in the global market.
3.4 Italy’s Position in the 21st Century Wine World
- Today, Italy is the world’s largest wine producer, often surpassing France and Spain.
- The renaissance of indigenous grape varietals, such as Nerello Mascalese (Sicily) and Timorasso (Piedmont), has fueled a new era of experimentation and tradition.
- Sustainability and organic/biodynamic viticulture are now shaping the future of Italian wine.
Conclusion: A Legacy of Over 9,000 Years
From the Neolithic vineyards of ancient Italy to the Imperial Roman wine empire, through the medieval monastic revival and the Renaissance refinement, Italian wine has continually evolved while retaining its deep cultural and historical significance.
Today, Italy’s extraordinary diversity of grape varieties, terroirs, and winemaking philosophies ensures that its ancient legacy continues to thrive in the modern world.
Wine in Italy is not just an industry—it is a living history, a cultural identity, and a testament to millennia of human craftsmanship and passion.