Wine is not merely a beverage. It is a living testament to the ingenuity, passion, and cultural exchange of humanity. Few places embody this truth more profoundly than Oenotria, the ancient land whose very name signifies “the land of wine”. Rooted in myth, history, and the fertile soils of southern Italy, Oenotria’s legacy is a celebration of the enduring relationship between humanity and the vine. This is the story of how wine shaped a region, a culture, and a myth that continues to inspire winemakers and wine lovers alike.

This article is dedicated to the winemakers of Greece and southern Italy, whose forebears first planted the seeds of viticulture and whose hands continue to craft wines that narrate the story of Oenotria.

The Myth of Oenotrus: The Hero Who Bridged Greece and Italy

The tale of Oenotria begins with Oenotrus, a figure enshrouded in the mists of Greek mythology. According to legend, Oenotrus was the youngest son of Lycaon, the king of Arcadia in the Peloponnese. Lycaon, a descendant of Zeus, was said to have had fifty sons, and Oenotrus was among them.

In the 17th or 16th century BCE (as the legend recounts), Oenotrus led a group of settlers from Arcadia to the southern part of the Italian peninsula. This migration was driven by overpopulation and the quest for fertile land. Upon his arrival in Italy, Oenotrus discovered a land abundant in natural resources, with rolling hills and a climate exquisitely suited for viticulture. He named this land Oenotria, derived from the Greek word oinos, meaning wine.

Oenotrus is often credited with introducing viticulture to Italy, imparting to the local populace the knowledge of vine cultivation and wine production. While this narrative is steeped in myth, it encapsulates a deeper truth: the dissemination of wine culture from Greece to Italy, a process that would profoundly shape the Mediterranean world for millennia.

The myth of Oenotrus is not merely a tale of migration; it is a narrative of cultural exchange. The Greeks brought with them not only their viticultural expertise but also their traditions, beliefs, and way of life. This amalgamation of Greek and Italic cultures laid the foundation for the rich wine heritage of southern Italy.

Oenotria: The Land of Wine

Oenotria, the land named after Oenotrus, encompassed much of what is now southern Italy, including modern-day Calabria, Basilicata, and parts of Campania. The ancient Greeks referred to this region as Oenotria not solely because of its legendary founder but also due to its renown as a land of abundant vineyards and exceptional wine.

The Oenotrians, the indigenous people of this region, were renowned for their prowess in viticulture and winemaking. They cultivated native grape varieties and developed techniques that would later influence Roman winemaking. The fertile soils, temperate climate, and proximity to the sea rendered Oenotria an ideal locale for viticulture, and its wines were highly esteemed in the ancient world.

When Greek colonists began arriving in southern Italy in the 8th century BCE, they brought with them their own winemaking traditions and grape varieties. The fusion of Greek and Oenotrian practices gave rise to a vibrant wine culture that would flourish for centuries. The Greeks denominated this region Magna Graecia (“Greater Greece”), and it became one of the most significant wine-producing areas of the ancient world.

Wine in Ancient Oenotria: A Cultural and Economic Force

Wine was more than a mere libation in ancient Oenotria; it was a symbol of civilisation, a cornerstone of trade, and an integral facet of daily life. The Oenotrians and their Greek neighbours employed wine in religious rituals, social gatherings, and even medicinal treatments.

Religious and Social Significance

In ancient Greece and Italy, wine was deeply intertwined with religion and mythology. Dionysus (Bacchus in Roman mythology), the god of wine, fertility, and ecstasy, was venerated throughout Magna Graecia. Festivals in his honour, such as the Dionysia, involved the consumption of wine, music, and dance.

Wine was also a central element of the symposium, a social gathering where men would discourse on philosophy, politics, and art whilst partaking of wine. These gatherings were not merely convivial; they were a means of fostering community and intellectual exchange.

Winemaking Techniques

The winemaking techniques of ancient Oenotria were remarkably advanced for their time. The Oenotrians and Greeks utilised clay amphorae to ferment and store wine, often sealing them with resin to preserve the contents. They also experimented with ageing wines, incorporating herbs, spices, and honey to create distinctive flavours.

The Greeks introduced new grape varieties to Oenotria, such as the ancestor of today’s Aglianico, which would become one of the most significant grapes in southern Italy. They also introduced the practice of trellising vines, which permitted better air circulation and sun exposure.

Trade and Economy

Wine played a pivotal role in the economy of Oenotria. The region’s wines were exported throughout the Mediterranean, reaching as far as Greece, North Africa, and the Middle East. The wine trade helped to establish Oenotria as a prosperous and influential region, attracting settlers, merchants, and conquerors.

The Greeks established colonies in southern Italy, such as Sybaris, Croton, and Taras (modern-day Taranto), which became important centres of wine production and trade. These colonies not only facilitated the exchange of goods but also the exchange of ideas, further enriching the cultural landscape of Oenotria.

The Legacy of Oenotria: From Antiquity to Modern Winemaking

The story of Oenotria did not conclude with the fall of the ancient world. The traditions of viticulture and winemaking that commenced in this region millennia ago continue to thrive today. Southern Italy remains one of the most significant wine-producing areas in the world, home to renowned wine regions such as Calabria, Basilicata, and Campania.

Modern Winemaking in Southern Italy

Modern winemakers in southern Italy draw inspiration from their ancient antecedents, employing both traditional and innovative techniques to produce wines that reflect the unique terroir of Oenotria. Native grape varieties such as Aglianico, Greco, and Gaglioppo have their roots in the ancient vineyards of Oenotria, and they continue to be celebrated for their distinctive flavours and aromas.

Aglianico, often referred to as the “Barolo of the South,” is one of the most iconic grapes of southern Italy. It yields bold, tannic red wines with notes of dark fruit, leather, and spice. Greco di Tufo and Fiano di Avellino, two white grape varieties from Campania, are renowned for their crisp acidity and complex aromas.

Greek Winemaking: A Parallel Legacy

The story of Oenotria is incomplete without acknowledging the parallel legacy of Greek winemaking. Greece, the birthplace of Dionysus, boasts a wine tradition that dates back over 6,500 years. Ancient Greek wines, such as retsina and sweet wines from the islands of Samos and Crete, were highly prized in the ancient world.

Today, Greek winemakers are reviving ancient grape varieties and techniques, producing wines that are both modern and deeply rooted in tradition. Varieties such as Assyrtiko, Xinomavro, and Malagousia are gaining international recognition for their quality and uniqueness.

The connection between Greek and southern Italian winemaking is more than historical; it is a living tradition. Many winemakers in both regions are rediscovering their shared heritage, collaborating on projects that celebrate the ancient bond between their cultures.

Conclusion: Raising a Glass to Oenotria and Its Winemakers

The story of wine and Oenotria is a narrative of exploration, innovation, and passion. From the mythical journey of Oenotrus to the thriving vineyards of modern southern Italy and Greece, this ancient land has played a pivotal role in the history of wine.

As we raise a glass of wine today, we are not merely enjoying a beverage; we are participating in a tradition that stretches back thousands of years. We are tasting the fruits of a land that was once called Oenotria, the land of wine. And in doing so, we honour the legacy of those who came before us, the pioneers who first planted the vines and discovered the magic of wine.

So, the next time you sip a glass of Aglianico, Assyrtiko, or Greco, take a moment to reflect on the story of Oenotria. It is a story that reminds us of the power of wine to connect us to the past, to the land, and to each other.

To the winemakers of southern Italy and Greece: thank you for keeping the legacy of Oenotria alive.

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By the late Hellenistic period, Greek wine had reached nearly every corner of the Mediterranean world. It was prized in Rome, Persia, and Egypt, and its production methods set the standard for viticulture across Europe, North Africa, and the Near East. However, as Greece fell under Roman dominion (146 BCE), a profound transformation in its wine culture began.

This period, spanning over two millennia, witnessed both the decline and resurgence of Greek wine. Under Roman rule, Greek vineyards faced stiff competition from Italian estates. The Byzantine Empire (330–1453 CE) preserved many ancient winemaking traditions, but centuries of foreign domination—from the Ottomans to the Venetians—challenged Greek viticulture. It was only in the 19th and 20th centuries that Greece began reclaiming its place in the global wine world.

This final chapter traces the journey of Greek wine from antiquity to the modern renaissance, exploring its struggles, innovations, and enduring legacy.

1. Greek Wine Under Roman Rule (146 BCE – 330 CE)

With the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BCE, the once-dominant Greek wine trade faced a dramatic shift. Rome, having adopted Greek viticultural techniques, no longer depended on Greek imports and instead cultivated its own vineyards in Campania, Etruria, and Hispania. While Greek wines remained highly regarded, Roman viticulture soon overshadowed Greece’s production.

Greek Influence on Roman Wine

Despite this decline, Greece’s role in shaping Roman winemaking was profound.

The Romans adopted Greek pruning techniques, vineyard terraces, and amphora storage methods.

Greek grape varieties, such as Ariousios (from Chios) and Pramnios (from Lesbos), influenced Roman blends.

Many of Rome’s most prestigious wines—such as Falernian and Caecuban—originated from Greek cultivars.

By the 1st century CE, Rome’s vast empire had expanded viticulture across Gaul, Germania, and Britannia, further marginalising Greek wines. However, Greek vineyards remained operational, producing high-quality sweet and aged wines, often exported for religious and medicinal use.

2. The Byzantine Era: The Sacred Preservation of Greek Wine (330–1453 CE)

With the founding of Constantinople in 330 CE, the Byzantine Empire became the spiritual and cultural successor to Rome, and Greek wine experienced a revival.

Wine and the Orthodox Church

The rise of Christianity played a crucial role in preserving Greek viticulture.

Wine was integral to the Divine Liturgy, leading monasteries to safeguard ancient vineyards.

Monastic winemaking became the backbone of Byzantine viticulture, particularly in regions such as Mount Athos, Patmos, and Meteora.

Certain Greek wines, such as Malvasia (Monemvasia) and Nama (the predecessor of Communion wine), became symbols of religious and commercial prestige.

Byzantine wines were widely exported to Venice, Genoa, and the Muslim world, often commanding high prices in Mediterranean markets. Despite economic and military challenges, Greek wine retained its prominence, serving both liturgical and aristocratic consumption.

3. Ottoman Rule: The Struggle for Survival (1453–1830)

The fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the subsequent Ottoman conquest of Greece posed the greatest challenge yet for Greek viticulture.

Islamic Restrictions and the Decline of Winemaking

The Ottoman Empire, an Islamic state, imposed heavy taxes on wine production, discouraging large-scale viticulture.

Many vineyards were abandoned, and traditional wine knowledge risked being lost.

However, in Christian-majority regions (such as Crete and the Aegean islands), wine production continued, albeit in smaller, more clandestine forms.

The Venetian and Western Influence

Certain Greek regions under Venetian rule—such as Crete, the Ionian Islands, and Cyprus—maintained their wine culture, exporting wines like Commandaria to European courts.

Commandaria, Cyprus’ famous dessert wine, was considered the world’s oldest named wine still in production and was prized by Richard the Lionheart.

The Venetians fostered trade networks that helped preserve Greek winemaking traditions, particularly in Santorini, Cephalonia, and Zakynthos.

While the Ottoman period curtailed Greek viticulture, small monasteries and island communities preserved ancient winemaking techniques, ensuring the survival of Greece’s historic vineyards.

4. The 19th and 20th Century Revival: From Crisis to Modernisation

The Greek War of Independence and the Birth of the Modern Wine Industry (1830–1900)

With Greek independence in 1830, the country embarked on a long journey to revive its historic vineyards. However, the 19th century proved turbulent:

The Phylloxera Epidemic (late 19th century) devastated many Greek vineyards, forcing winemakers to replant using resistant rootstocks.

Economic struggles and rural migration hindered large-scale viticulture.

Yet, by the early 20th century, Greece saw a renewed focus on quality winemaking, with regions like Nemea, Naoussa, and Santorini emerging as new centres of viticultural excellence.

The Rise of Boutari and Tsantali (1900–1970s)

In 1879, Yiannis Boutaris founded what would become one of Greece’s most influential wineries, pioneering the revival of Xinomavro.

Tsantali, founded in 1890, played a crucial role in restoring Mount Athos’ monastic winemaking traditions.

Despite wars, economic crises, and political instability, Greece’s wine industry slowly rebuilt itself.

5. The Contemporary Greek Wine Renaissance (1980–Present Day)

The late 20th and early 21st centuries marked a new golden age for Greek wine.

Modern Innovations and the Rise of Terroir-Driven Wines

Since the 1980s, Greece has seen:

The resurgence of indigenous grape varieties, such as Assyrtiko, Agiorgitiko, and Xinomavro.

Investment in modern winemaking techniques, blending tradition with technology.

The establishment of Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) regions, enhancing global recognition.

Today, Greek wines are internationally acclaimed, with Santorini’s Assyrtiko, Naoussa’s Xinomavro, and Nemea’s Agiorgitiko standing alongside the world’s finest.

Conclusion: The Eternal Legacy of Greek Wine

From Dionysian rituals to Byzantine monasteries, from Ottoman struggles to modern innovation, Greek wine has endured millennia of transformation. While once overshadowed by Roman and later French and Italian viticulture, Greece has reclaimed its place on the world stage.

As Greek winemakers continue to balance ancient wisdom with cutting-edge techniques, the wines of Greece stand as a testament to resilience, heritage, and the timeless bond between culture and the vine.

The history of Greek wine is far from over—it is still being written, with each vintage carrying the legacy of 7000 years of tradition.

The History of Wine in Italy: Part I — From Mythology to the Etruscan and Early Roman Eras (circa 6000 BCE – 100 BCE)

The history of Italian wine is as ancient and complex as the land itself, intertwined with the myths of gods and heroes, the ingenuity of early civilizations, and the conquests that shaped the Mediterranean world. Italy’s viticultural past stretches back at least 8,000 years, with archaeological evidence indicating that the earliest inhabitants of the Italian Peninsula cultivated wild grapes long before recorded history.

From mythological origins, where wine was the gift of gods like Bacchus (Dionysus) and Liber Pater, to the sophisticated practices of the Etruscans, the evolution of Italian wine mirrors the rise of some of history’s greatest civilizations. By the time of the Roman Republic (509–27 BCE), Italy had become the epicentre of viticulture, influencing wine culture across Europe and the Mediterranean.

This first chapter explores the earliest origins of Italian wine, tracing its evolution from prehistoric times to the rise of Rome, examining the archaeological, literary, and historical records that have shaped Italy’s enduring wine legacy.

1. Mythology and the Divine Origins of Wine in Italy

Much like in Greece, wine in Italy was deeply connected to divine myths and religious traditions. The Romans identified Bacchus with the Greek Dionysus, the god of wine, pleasure, and fertility, whose cult spread throughout the ancient world.

Bacchus and Liber Pater: The Gods of Wine

The earliest Italian mythological traditions suggest that wine was a sacred gift, brought to humanity by the gods.

• Bacchus (Dionysus), worshipped in Greek and Roman culture, was believed to have taught mortals the art of winemaking.
• Liber Pater, an ancient Italic god, was the protector of viticulture and fertility, celebrated in the Liberalia festival (March 17th), where young men symbolically transitioned into adulthood with wine offerings.

These deities reflect wine’s centrality to ancient Italian society, not just as a drink but as a sacred conduit between gods and mortals.

The Legend of Oenotria: Italy as the Land of Wine

The ancient Greeks referred to southern Italy as “Oenotria”, meaning “Land of Vines.”

• This term appears in Hesiod’s Theogony and Homer’s Odyssey, suggesting that by the 8th century BCE, Greek travelers already recognized Italy’s potential for winemaking.
• According to legend, Oenotrus, son of Lycaon (King of Arcadia), migrated to Italy and taught its people viticulture, giving rise to Italy’s first organized wine culture.

These early myths underscore wine’s profound role in shaping Italy’s identity, long before the rise of the Etruscans and Romans.

2. The Prehistoric Roots of Italian Winemaking (6000–1000 BCE)

Archaeological Evidence of Early Viticulture

Scientific discoveries have confirmed that winemaking in Italy dates back thousands of years.

• Residues of ancient wild grape fermentation (Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris) have been found in Sicily and Calabria, dating to 4000 BCE.
• In Tuscany and the Po Valley, evidence suggests that Neolithic communities may have engaged in early forms of viticulture as early as 6000 BCE.
• Excavations in Sardinia’s Monte d’Accoddi have revealed grape seeds and primitive wine storage vessels, indicating that Nuragic civilization (1800–500 BCE) may have been among the earliest winemakers in the Mediterranean.

The Influence of Phoenicians and Mycenaeans (2000–1000 BCE)

During the Bronze Age, Italy was deeply influenced by Phoenician and Mycenaean traders, who introduced:

• Advanced fermentation techniques using amphorae.
• Selective breeding of grape varieties for higher sugar content and better fermentation.
• The practice of maritime trade in wines, linking Italy with Egypt, Greece, and the Levant.

By the Iron Age (1000 BCE), the Italian Peninsula was already home to multiple thriving wine cultures, setting the stage for the rise of Etruscan and Roman viticulture.

3. The Etruscans: Italy’s First Great Winemakers (900–300 BCE)

Long before Rome’s dominance, the Etruscans (900–300 BCE) of central Italy (modern-day Tuscany, Lazio, and Umbria) were the first civilization to establish organized, large-scale winemaking.

The Etruscan Contribution to Italian Wine

• They domesticated and cultivated wild grape varieties, refining early Italian viticulture.
• Their use of wooden barrels and terracotta amphorae improved wine storage and aging.
• They introduced pruned vineyard layouts, much like modern espalier training systems.
• They traded wines extensively, especially with the Greeks, Carthaginians, and Celts.

Archaeological Discoveries

• Etruscan tomb paintings from Tarquinia and Cerveteri (6th century BCE) depict elaborate wine-drinking scenes, suggesting that wine played a central role in religion, feasting, and daily life.
• Excavations in Poggio Civitate (Murlo, Tuscany) have uncovered fermentation vats, presses, and storage facilities, indicating advanced viticultural practices.

The Etruscans established Tuscany’s reputation as a viticultural heartland, a legacy that continues today in the famous Chianti and Brunello di Montalcino wines.

4. The Early Roman Republic and the Expansion of Viticulture (509–100 BCE)

With the rise of the Roman Republic (509 BCE–27 BCE), wine became a fundamental part of Roman society. The Romans adopted Etruscan and Greek techniques, refining them into what would become one of the most influential viticultural traditions in history.

The Spread of Roman Vineyards

• By 300 BCE, the Romans had established large-scale vineyards in Latium, Campania, and Apulia.
• The conquest of Sicily (241 BCE), Sardinia (238 BCE), and Cisalpine Gaul (200 BCE) expanded Rome’s wine territory.
• Vineyard cultivation laws, such as those outlined in Cato the Elder’s De Agri Cultura (160 BCE), provided the first structured Roman viticultural manuals.

Rome’s First Wine Regulations

The Romans introduced early wine laws, including:

• The Lex Licinia (121 BCE), which regulated the planting of vineyards.
• The Roman practice of Falernian wine aging, which pioneered controlled oxidation.
• The use of clay amphorae and wooden barrels, which allowed for long-distance wine trade across the Mediterranean.

By the end of the 2nd century BCE, Roman wines had surpassed Greek wines in commercial dominance, laying the foundation for the Golden Age of Roman viticulture.

Conclusion: The Birth of Italy’s Wine Identity

From prehistoric cultivation to the rise of the Etruscans and Romans, Italian wine developed as both an art and a necessity, deeply embedded in the country’s cultural, religious, and economic life.

As Rome expanded, Italian wine would soon reach every corner of the empire, influencing France, Spain, and Germany, and shaping the future of European viticulture.

This is only the beginning of the story. In Part II, we will explore the height of Roman winemaking, its influence on the world, and the transition from the Classical Age to the Middle Ages.

The History of Wine in Italy: Part II — The Roman Golden Age and the Transformation of Viticulture (100 BCE – 500 CE)

The second chapter in the history of Italian wine explores the height of Roman viticulture, a period that saw the codification of winemaking techniques, the spread of Italian vineyards across the empire, and the unprecedented rise of wine as a commodity, a cultural pillar, and a social necessity.

By the 1st century BCE, Italy had become the wine capital of the ancient world, with Roman viticulture surpassing that of Greece and Phoenicia. This period, which spans the final decades of the Republic (509–27 BCE) and the entirety of the Empire (27 BCE–476 CE), witnessed the industrialization of wine production, the codification of viticultural practices, and the expansion of Italian wines into the farthest reaches of the empire.

However, the fall of Rome in the 5th century CE would also bring about the decline of many vineyards, leading to a period of transformation in which new custodians, particularly Christian monastic orders, would preserve Italy’s vinous legacy.

This chapter traces the rise, peak, and gradual decline of Roman viticulture, examining the historical, archaeological, and literary records that document one of the most influential periods in wine history.

1. The Codification of Roman Winemaking (100 BCE – 27 BCE)

By the final century of the Roman Republic, viticulture had become a refined science. Roman scholars such as Cato the Elder (234–149 BCE), Varro (116–27 BCE), and Columella (4–70 CE) wrote extensively about vineyard management, grape selection, and fermentation techniques. Their writings codified many practices that remain fundamental to modern winemaking.

Key Innovations in Roman Viticulture

1. Zoning and Terroir Awareness
   • Romans recognized regional differences in wine quality. The earliest wine classifications were developed, distinguishing Falernian (Campania), Caecuban (Latium), and Mamertine (Sicily) wines as the finest in the empire.
   • Pliny the Elder’s Naturalis Historia (77 CE) recorded the first ranking of wines based on terroir, marking an early precursor to today’s appellation systems (DOC, AOC, etc.).
2. Large-Scale Vineyards and Mass Production
   • Romans introduced latifundia—large estate vineyards—particularly in Campania, Etruria (Tuscany), and the Po Valley. These estates were often worked by enslaved laborers, making wine production highly efficient.
   • Clay amphorae were replaced by wooden barrels (likely influenced by the Celts), allowing for longer aging and easier transportation.
3. The Rise of Aged Wines
   • Some wines, particularly Falernian, were aged for decades. Roman writers describe vintages exceeding 100 years, similar to modern high-end Bordeaux or Barolo.
   • Romans were the first to recognize the importance of oxidation control, using resin (proto-vermouth) and honey to preserve wines.
4. Exporting Italian Wine Across the Empire
   • Italian wine became the first global commodity in history, shipped across the Mediterranean and beyond.
   • Pompeii became the commercial hub of Roman viticulture, exporting millions of amphorae per year. Archaeological remains reveal taverns, storage facilities, and sophisticated winemaking equipment.

By the time of Augustus (27 BCE – 14 CE), Italian wine had achieved unparalleled prestige, setting the stage for the golden age of Roman viniculture.

2. The Golden Age of Roman Wine (27 BCE – 250 CE)

During the height of the Roman Empire, wine was not merely a drink—it was a status symbol, a medicinal tool, a religious offering, and an economic powerhouse.

Wine as a Status Symbol

• The elite drank vintage Falernian, Caecuban, and Surrentine wines, often mixed with exotic spices, saffron, and even pearls.
• The lower classes consumed Lora, a lower-quality wine made from the second pressing of grapes, similar to today’s vin de presse.

Wine and Religion

• Wine played a key role in Bacchic and Dionysian rituals, which, despite being outlawed in 186 BCE, persisted in underground sects.
• The emerging Christian faith adopted wine into Eucharistic rituals, laying the foundation for the Church’s future role in preserving winemaking traditions.

Rome’s Expansion of Vineyards Beyond Italy

As Rome’s empire expanded, so did its vineyards. The Romans planted vines across Europe, shaping the wine regions of France, Spain, and Germany:

• Gaul (France): Romans introduced vines to Bordeaux, Burgundy, and the Rhône Valley, regions that would later become the pillars of French viticulture.
• Hispania (Spain): Vineyards were established in Tarragona and Rioja, predecessors to Spain’s modern wine industry.
• Germania (Germany): Romans introduced viticulture along the Rhine and Mosel rivers, giving birth to German Riesling.

While Italy remained the epicentre of wine culture, these new vineyards would later surpass Roman production after the fall of the empire.

3. The Decline of Roman Viticulture (250–500 CE)

By the 3rd century CE, the golden age of Roman viticulture began to wane. Several factors contributed to the decline of Italian winemaking:

1. Overproduction and Economic Collapse

• By the 2nd century CE, wine production had surpassed demand, causing prices to drop.
• The Roman economy entered crisis mode (beginning with the Crisis of the Third Century, 235–284 CE), disrupting trade routes and vineyard economies.

2. Barbarian Invasions and Vineyard Destruction

• Between 300–500 CE, invasions by Goths, Vandals, and Huns devastated Italy’s rural landscape.
• Vineyards in northern and central Italy were abandoned, leading to a significant decline in wine production.

3. The Rise of Christianity and Changes in Wine Culture

• Christianity’s dominance led to the rejection of Bacchic rituals, diminishing wine’s association with excess and indulgence.
• However, Christian monastic orders began preserving viticulture, foreshadowing their crucial role in the medieval revival of Italian wine.

By 476 CE, the Western Roman Empire had collapsed, and with it, the dominance of Italian wine in global trade.

Conclusion: The Legacy of Roman Viticulture

Despite its decline, the Roman influence on wine culture endured. Many Roman innovations—aged wines, terroir-based classifications, amphora storage, and vineyard expansion—became the foundation of European viticulture.

In Part III, we will explore the medieval revival of Italian wine, the role of monastic orders, the Renaissance influence on winemaking, and the emergence of modern Italian wine regions.

The History of Wine in Italy: Part III — The Medieval Revival, Renaissance Evolution, and Modern Italian Wine (500 CE – Present)

The third and final chapter in the history of Italian wine chronicles its rebirth from the ruins of the Roman Empire, the evolution of winemaking through the Middle Ages and Renaissance, and its transformation into the modern world-class industry it is today.

Following the fall of Rome (476 CE), Italian viticulture entered a period of decline, with many vineyards abandoned due to economic collapse and political instability. However, Christian monastic orders, particularly the Benedictines and Cistercians, preserved winemaking traditions, laying the groundwork for the wine culture of the Middle Ages.

By the Renaissance (14th–17th centuries), wine once again became a symbol of prestige, sophistication, and commerce, as Florence, Venice, and Rome emerged as European cultural and economic powerhouses. The 19th and 20th centuries saw the modernization of Italian viticulture, leading to the appellation system (DOC/DOCG), the Super Tuscan revolution, and Italy’s rise as a global wine leader.

This final part examines the archaeological, literary, and historical evidence of wine’s medieval, Renaissance, and modern transformations, tracing how Italy regained—and ultimately exceeded—its ancient vinous supremacy.

1. The Medieval Revival of Italian Wine (500–1300 CE)

The early Middle Ages (5th–10th centuries) were a period of hardship for Italy. With the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, vineyards were left untended, and trade routes that once carried Italian wine across the empire disintegrated. However, two forces ensured the survival of viticulture: the Christian Church and feudal lords.

1.1 The Role of Monastic Orders in Preserving Wine Culture

As secular winemaking declined, monasteries became the custodians of viticulture, producing wine for:

• The Eucharist (Communion wine remained a sacred necessity).
• Sustenance (monks consumed wine as a staple of their diet).
• Trade (monastic wines became highly sought-after in medieval markets).

The Benedictines (founded in 529 CE) and Cistercians (founded in 1098 CE) played a crucial role in reviving vineyards, particularly in Tuscany, Umbria, and Lombardy. Their meticulous vineyard management laid the foundation for many of today’s famous Italian wine regions.

1.2 The Growth of Feudal Vineyards

• By the 11th century, Italian noble families began investing in vineyards. The Medici family in Tuscany and the Venetian merchant elite saw wine as a status symbol.
• Regional markets developed, particularly in Florence, Bologna, and Venice, where local wines were sold alongside imported French and Spanish varieties.

1.3 The Birth of Proto-Terroir Concepts

• The first medieval wine regulations emerged in Chianti and Piedmont, marking the origins of modern appellation laws.
• Trade documents from Venice (12th century) show Italian wines being exported to Northern Europe, reviving Italy’s position in the international market.

By the 13th century, Italy had regained its position as a major wine producer, setting the stage for the Renaissance transformation of viticulture.

2. The Renaissance and the Codification of Italian Wine (1300–1700 CE)

The Renaissance (14th–17th centuries) marked the rebirth of wine culture, as Italy’s art, commerce, and literature flourished. During this period, Italian viticulture became more refined, and wine once again became a symbol of sophistication, luxury, and intellectual pursuit.

2.1 The Role of the Renaissance in Wine Culture

• Italian humanists such as Petrarch and Leonardo da Vinci wrote about wine, emphasizing its cultural and artistic significance.
• Michelangelo’s family owned vineyards in Tuscany, and his letters mention the importance of terroir.

2.2 The First Attempts at Wine Classification

• In 1716, Cosimo III de’ Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, issued the first wine appellation law for Chianti, making it the earliest officially recognized wine region in history.
• Venetian merchants classified Amarone della Valpolicella as one of Italy’s finest wines, laying the groundwork for its modern DOCG status.

2.3 The Expansion of Italian Wine Trade

• By the 16th century, Italian wines were exported to France, England, and the Holy Roman Empire.
• The Venetian Republic controlled much of the European wine trade, competing with Bordeaux and Burgundy.

While Italian wine thrived during the Renaissance, the 17th and 18th centuries brought new challenges, particularly with French dominance in wine markets. However, Italy would soon reclaim its prestige in the modern era.

3. The Birth of Modern Italian Wine (1800–Present)

The 19th and 20th centuries saw Italy modernize its wine industry, transitioning from a medieval system of noble-owned vineyards to a dynamic global force.

3.1 The Impact of Phylloxera and Italian Resilience (19th Century)

• In the late 1800s, phylloxera devastated European vineyards, including those in Italy.
• Italian viticulturists adopted American rootstocks, saving many ancient varietals such as Nebbiolo, Sangiovese, and Aglianico.
• The unification of Italy (1861) led to national policies supporting vineyard expansion.

3.2 The Rise of the DOC and DOCG System (20th Century)

• In 1963, Italy introduced the DOC (Denominazione di Origine Controllata) system, inspired by France’s AOC model.
• In 1980, DOCG (Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita) was introduced, ensuring the highest quality designation for Italian wines.
• Iconic wines like Barolo, Brunello di Montalcino, and Chianti Classico became internationally recognized.

3.3 The Super Tuscan Revolution (1970s–Present)

• Frustration with DOC regulations led to the creation of Super Tuscans—high-quality wines that blended Sangiovese with international varietals (Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah).
• The success of wines like Sassicaia, Tignanello, and Ornellaia challenged the traditional classification system, ultimately reshaping Italy’s place in the global market.

3.4 Italy’s Position in the 21st Century Wine World

• Today, Italy is the world’s largest wine producer, often surpassing France and Spain.
• The renaissance of indigenous grape varietals, such as Nerello Mascalese (Sicily) and Timorasso (Piedmont), has fueled a new era of experimentation and tradition.
• Sustainability and organic/biodynamic viticulture are now shaping the future of Italian wine.

Conclusion: A Legacy of Over 9,000 Years

From the Neolithic vineyards of ancient Italy to the Imperial Roman wine empire, through the medieval monastic revival and the Renaissance refinement, Italian wine has continually evolved while retaining its deep cultural and historical significance.

Today, Italy’s extraordinary diversity of grape varieties, terroirs, and winemaking philosophies ensures that its ancient legacy continues to thrive in the modern world.

Wine in Italy is not just an industry—it is a living history, a cultural identity, and a testament to millennia of human craftsmanship and passion.

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The Classical and Hellenistic Golden Age of Viticulture (c. 1100 BCE – 146 BCE)

The fall of the Mycenaean civilisation (c. 1100 BCE) marked the beginning of the Greek Dark Ages, a period of economic and cultural stagnation. Yet, even in this time of upheaval, wine remained a fundamental element of Greek life. By the Geometric period (c. 900–700 BCE), Greece had begun its ascent toward what would become one of the most intellectually and culturally advanced societies of antiquity.

During the Archaic (c. 700–500 BCE) and Classical (c. 500–323 BCE) periods, viticulture was systematised, celebrated, and elevated into an art form, shaping Greek philosophy, economy, and social customs. The wine-drinking ritual known as the symposium became an institution of Greek society, while specific regions—Chios, Lesbos, Thasos, Samos, and Crete—gained legendary status for their wine production. By the Hellenistic period (c. 323–146 BCE), Greek viticulture had spread across the Mediterranean, influencing the Romans, Persians, and even the Egyptian Ptolemies.

This era was the golden age of Greek wine, laying the foundations for the global wine culture that would follow.

1. The Symposium: Wine as an Intellectual and Social Institution

More than a mere indulgence, wine in Classical Greece was a vehicle for philosophical debate, artistic creation, and political discussion. Nowhere was this more evident than in the symposium (συμπόσιον)—a structured drinking gathering that was a hallmark of Athenian society.

The symposium, immortalised in Plato’s eponymous dialogue, was a celebration of Dionysus, but also an occasion for intellectual and political discourse. Held in the andron (a special men’s chamber of the Greek household), the symposium was presided over by a symposiarch, who dictated the ratio of water to wine—a practice essential for maintaining control over intoxication and conversation.

The dilution of wine (usually mixed 3:1 with water) was seen as a marker of civilisation—unlike the barbarians, who drank their wine unmixed and to excess. The Greeks believed that moderation in wine mirrored moderation in thought, allowing drinkers to reach a state of elevated discussion without descending into mere drunkenness.

Wine was the lifeblood of Greek intellectual culture, fueling debates between Socrates, Aristophanes, and Alcibiades, as Plato describes. Poetry, music, and erotic discourse often accompanied symposia, and certain wines—particularly from Chios and Lesbos—were prized for their ability to enhance the experience.

2. The Rise of Regional Wines: Chios, Lesbos, Thasos, and Beyond

By the 5th century BCE, Greece had become one of the most sophisticated wine-producing regions of the ancient world. Specific islands and city-states became famous for distinct styles of wine, often linked to their terroir, climate, and grape varietals.

Chios: The Wine of Philosophers and Poets

Chios (Χίος) produced some of the most expensive and sought-after wines in Greece.

Known for its dark, aromatic, and highly concentrated character, Chiot wine was often aged and exported in sealed amphorae.

It was widely praised by Homer, Hesiod, and Aristotle, and became a symbol of elite consumption in Athens.

Lesbos: The Sweet Wines of the Aegean

Lesbos (Λέσβος) was famed for its golden-hued, sweet Muscat wines.

It was believed that Theophrastus, Aristotle’s successor, had written extensively about Lesbian winemaking methods.

Lesbian wines were exported across the Mediterranean, often reaching Persian and Egyptian markets.

Thasos: The Fortified Wine of the North

Thasian wine (Θάσος) was particularly strong and full-bodied, resembling modern fortified wines.

The Thasians introduced early vineyard management techniques, including pruning and selective harvesting.

Thasian wines were particularly prized by Greek merchants and diplomats, often served at official state banquets.

Other regions such as Samos, Crete, Corinth, and Rhodes also produced highly esteemed wines, but Chios, Lesbos, and Thasos remained the undisputed leaders of the Classical wine trade.

3. The Expansion of Greek Wine in the Mediterranean

Greek colonisation between 750 BCE and 500 BCE spread viticulture across the Mediterranean, introducing advanced winemaking techniques to Italy, France, and North Africa. Archaeological finds from Massalia (modern Marseille), Neapolis (Naples), and Sicily indicate that Greek settlers introduced:

Trellising and pruning techniques

Fermentation and amphora storage innovations

The practice of wine aging and trade regulation

By the 4th century BCE, Greek wines were widely exported to Carthage, Spain, and even Central Europe, leading to a dynamic and competitive wine market.

Greek influence on Roman viticulture was particularly profound—many of the finest Roman wines, such as Falernian and Caecuban, were cultivated using Greek methods and often contained Greek grape varieties.

4. The Hellenistic Era and the Globalisation of Greek Wine (323 BCE – 146 BCE)

Following Alexander the Great’s conquests (c. 334–323 BCE), Greek culture—and by extension, Greek wine—became a dominant force from the Balkans to India and Egypt. Greek winemaking traditions were adopted by the Ptolemies in Alexandria, the Seleucids in Persia, and the Indo-Greek kingdoms of Central Asia.

In Egypt, the Ptolemies revitalised local viticulture, establishing vast vineyards in the Nile Delta. Greek amphorae with royal Ptolemaic seals indicate that Greek-style wines were widely consumed by the Egyptian elite.

In Persia, Seleucid rulers imported Greek winemaking knowledge, leading to the revival of Persian vineyards, which had suffered under Achaemenid rule. The fusion of Greek and Persian traditions gave rise to hybrid winemaking techniques, some of which survive in modern Iranian viticulture.

By the end of the Hellenistic period, Greek wine had become a global commodity, enjoyed across Europe, Africa, and Asia. The next stage in its history would come under Roman rule, where Greek wines would reach even greater heights—but also face new challenges as Roman viticulture overtook Greece’s dominance.

Coming in Part III

The Romanisation of Greek Viticulture: Triumph or Decline?

Byzantine Wine: The Survival of Ancient Traditions

Ottoman Rule and the Struggle for Greek Wine’s Identity

The Modern Revival of Greek Wine

This second part has detailed the golden age of Greek wine, from the philosophical traditions of the symposium to the expansion of viticulture across the Mediterranean. Part III will examine how Greek wines fared under Rome, Byzantium, and the Ottoman Empire, before ultimately re-emerging in the modern era as one of the world’s most distinctive wine cultures.

The post The History of Wine in Greece: Part II appeared first on Oenotria.

The history of wine in Greece is a tale as ancient as civilisation itself, deeply intertwined with mythology, religion, trade, and cultural identity. Archaeological evidence suggests that viticulture in the region dates back at least 9,000 years, making it one of the earliest known centres of wine production and consumption. From the earliest traces of wild grape domestication in Neolithic Thessaly to the flourishing of Minoan and Mycenaean wine cultures, the Greek relationship with wine laid the foundation for much of Western oenological tradition.

Wine and Mythology: The Divine Gift of Dionysus

No discussion of Greek wine history can begin without acknowledging Dionysus, the god of wine, revelry, and fertility. The Orphic Hymns, the Homeric Epics, and later Greek drama and philosophy elevate Dionysus to a status beyond mere godhood—he is the very personification of the vine itself. Ancient Greek theogonies place him among the oldest Olympians, with his cult tracing back to Thrace and Phrygia, regions rich in early viticultural evidence. The myths tell of Dionysus wandering the world, teaching mankind the secrets of winemaking, often facing opposition from mortals who sought to resist the intoxicating power of his gift.

One of the earliest recorded references to Greek viticulture is found in Homer’s Odyssey (c. 8th century BCE), where the Cyclops Polyphemus is tricked and blinded after consuming “honey-sweet wine” brought by Odysseus. This passage not only illustrates the high value placed on wine but also suggests a well-established trade in aged, complex vintages.

The Neolithic and Early Bronze Age (c. 7000 BCE – 2000 BCE)

The first concrete evidence of Greek wine culture predates even the Minoans, reaching back to the Neolithic period (c. 7000 BCE). Archaeological finds in the Franchthi Cave (Peloponnese) and at Dispilio (Kastoria, Northern Greece) suggest that early Greek societies gathered wild Vitis vinifera sylvestris grapes, likely fermenting them in rudimentary vessels.

By the early Bronze Age (c. 3500 BCE – 2000 BCE), with the development of agrarian societies, domesticated grape cultivation became a cornerstone of economic and social life. Excavations in Thessaly, Crete, and the Cyclades have unearthed wine presses, amphorae, and grape pips, indicating an increasingly sophisticated approach to viticulture. Evidence from the Dikili Tash site in Eastern Macedonia suggests that by 4300 BCE, settlers had begun cultivating domesticated grapevines, pressing them, and fermenting their juice in ceramic storage vessels—a practice resembling later Minoan and Mycenaean techniques.

The Minoan Wine Empire (c. 2000 BCE – 1600 BCE)

The Minoans of Crete, among the most advanced Bronze Age civilisations, were pioneers of large-scale viticulture. Wine production flourished under King Minos, who established vast palatial complexes at Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, and Zakros, each featuring extensive storerooms with massive pithoi (storage jars) dedicated to wine. The frescoes of Akrotiri (Santorini) depict grape cultivation and processing, while the Linear A and Linear B scripts, the earliest forms of written Greek, contain references to wine-related trade.

One of the most important discoveries comes from Vathypetro (c. 1600 BCE), where archaeologists uncovered Europe’s oldest known wine press—a sophisticated trough-like basin used for treading grapes. This site provides undeniable evidence that Minoans engaged in organised winemaking, with surplus production intended for trade. The Minoan Thalassocracy extended Greek wine influence as far as Egypt, Cyprus, and Anatolia, establishing Crete as a major exporter of fine wines.

The Minoan wine industry was not merely economic but also religious. Wine played a ceremonial role in palace cults, with evidence suggesting ritual libations to deities. The famous Hagia Triada sarcophagus depicts figures pouring wine as an offering to the gods, reinforcing the deep spiritual significance of viticulture in ancient Crete.

The Mycenaean Expansion and the Birth of Terroir (c. 1600 BCE – 1100 BCE)

With the decline of the Minoan civilisation after the eruption of Thera (Santorini, c. 1628 BCE), the Mycenaeans—warlike peoples of mainland Greece—rose to prominence. By 1400 BCE, they had adopted and expanded Minoan wine practices, refining viticultural techniques and introducing regional differentiation, an early form of what we now recognise as terroir.

The palaces of Mycenae, Pylos, and Tiryns contained storerooms filled with amphorae, and Linear B tablets from Pylos explicitly mention wine storage, distribution, and taxation—suggesting an organised trade network that controlled viniculture. The Shipwreck of Uluburun (c. 1300 BCE), discovered off the coast of modern-day Turkey, carried hundreds of Cretan and Mycenaean amphorae, proving the export of Greek wine throughout the Mediterranean.

By this time, specific wine-producing regions were recognised for their distinctive qualities. Linear B tablets refer to “wines of Knossos” and “wines of Kythera”, demonstrating an awareness of regional variation in taste and quality—an early precursor to the appellation system that would define Greek wine for millennia to come.

Conclusion: The Birth of Greek Wine Culture

By the end of the Bronze Age (c. 1100 BCE), Greek wine culture had become firmly established. The mythology, religious ceremonies, and trade networks of the Minoans and Mycenaeans laid the groundwork for the Classical Greek era, where wine would not only flourish but become an essential pillar of society, philosophy, and identity. The next phase of Greek viticulture, from the Geometric and Archaic periods through to the Classical and Hellenistic worlds, would see the formalisation of wine drinking customs, the spread of Greek vineyards across the Mediterranean, and the establishment of wine as a marker of civilisation itself.

Coming in Part II

The Symposium: The Social and Intellectual Role of Wine in Classical Greece

The Golden Age of Viticulture: Attic, Aegean, and Ionian Wines

Greek Wine in the Roman World

This first part of the history has traced the origins of Greek wine from mythological symbolism to Bronze Age trade networks. Part II will explore how Classical Greek society structured its relationship with wine, codifying it into an institutional, intellectual, and economic force that shaped the Mediterranean world for centuries to come

The post The History of Wine in Greece: Part I appeared first on Oenotria.

The history and science behind the 750ml wine bottle The 750-millilitre (ml) wine bottle is an enduring standard in the global wine industry, yet its origins are rooted in a confluence of historical, practical, and scientific factors. The adoption of this precise volume was not arbitrary; rather, it emerged through centuries of artisanal craftsmanship, physiological limitations, trade conventions, and modern regulatory frameworks.

1. The evolution of glassblowing and bottle standardisation

In antiquity, wine was stored and transported in clay amphorae, which typically held between 20 and 30 litres, though sizes varied widely. These vessels were porous but often sealed with pitch, resin, or wax to reduce oxidation and spoilage. The advent of glassblowing in the 1st century BCE, pioneered by Syrian and Roman artisans, revolutionised container production by enabling the creation of thin-walled, transparent vessels. While glass provided a non-reactive, inert environment, its fragility and cost meant that amphorae remained dominant for bulk storage and transport until the Middle Ages. By the 17th century, advancements in glass production -particularly in England and France- led to the creation of sturdier bottles. English glassmakers, notably Sir Kenelm Digby, developed coal-fired furnaces, allowing for the production of thicker, darker glass capable of withstanding wine fermentation and long-term storage. Early wine bottle sizes varied widely due to manual glassblowing techniques, typically ranging between 500ml and 1 litre. While some historians suggest that bottle size was influenced by a glassblower’s lung capacity, which could produce vessels of approximately 700-800ml, the eventual standardisation of the 750ml bottle was also shaped by trade conventions, taxation policies, and practical considerations for storage and transport.

2. The physiology of human consumption

The 750ml wine bottle aligns closely with standard serving sizes and social drinking norms. A full bottle yields five 150ml servings, which corresponds to the standard restaurant pour in many countries and fits within moderate drinking guidelines when shared. Health authorities define moderate alcohol consumption differently:

• In the United States, the CDC recommends one standard drink per day for women (≈150ml of wine at 12-13% ABV) and two for men (≈300ml).

• The United Kingdom’s NHS advises limiting intake to 14 units per week, roughly equivalent to six 125ml glasses spread over several days.

• Other nations, such as France and Italy, encourage moderation but do not enforce strict volume limits.

While a 750ml bottle is ideal for sharing, consuming an entire bottle in one sitting exceeds daily intake recommendations for an individual. However, its size remains optimal for both commercial and social settings, allowing for convenient portioning while supporting responsible drinking practices.

3. Influence of the french wine trade and imperial measurement systems

During the 18th and 19th centuries, wine production in Bordeaux and Burgundy became dominant in European trade, with Britain as a key importer. The British Imperial gallon (4.546 litres), officially defined in 1824, was traditionally divided into six bottles of approximately 750ml, facilitating taxation and trade standardisation. While early wine bottles varied in size, this system likely influenced the later adoption of the 750ml standard bottle. When France introduced the metric system in 1795, early efforts at wine bottle standardisation aimed to facilitate trade with Britain and other markets. The 12-bottle case (9 litres) became a convenient unit, aligning with both metric and Imperial measurements, simplifying transport, taxation, and commerce. However, the 750ml bottle was not officially standardised in France until the 20th century, with its adoption becoming widespread in the 1970s due to international regulations and trade agreements.

4.1 Scientific perspective: Oxidation chemistry and ageing

Wine ageing is governed by complex oxidation-reduction reactions that influence flavour, structure, and longevity. The oxygen transmission rate (OTR) through the bottle and cork plays a key role in the controlled evolution of wine. Oxygen interacts with phenolic compounds, leading to tannin polymerisation, anthocyanin stabilisation (for red wines), and the gradual formation of aldehydes that contribute to aroma development. The surface area-to-volume ratio in a 750ml bottle provides a moderate oxidative environment, allowing for gradual maturation while minimising premature oxidation. In contrast, half-bottles (375ml) accelerate oxidative processes due to a higher ratio of headspace oxygen to liquid, resulting in more rapid tannin softening and flavour evolution. Conversely, larger formats (e.g., magnums, 1.5L) have a lower oxygen exposure per unit of liquid, which slows down oxidative reactions and promotes more stable long-term ageing. Additionally, cork permeability influences the ageing process. Natural cork allows for microscopic oxygen ingress (~1 mg per year per bottle), which facilitates controlled oxidation. However, variations in cork porosity can impact ageing rates, explaining why bottles from the same vintage may evolve differently. The adoption of screw caps and synthetic closures in recent decades has further influenced oxidation dynamics, reducing oxygen ingress variability and prolonging freshness.

4.2 Historical perspective: Trade, regulation, and standardisation

The dominance of the 750ml bottle in modern wine commerce is deeply tied to historical trade practices and regulatory standardisation. During the 18th and 19th centuries, France -particularly Bordeaux and Burgundy- was a leading exporter of wine, with Britain as one of its largest markets. The British Imperial gallon (4.546 litres) was a key unit for bulk wine trade, and barrels were often measured in multiples of gallons. A six-bottle division of an Imperial gallon (≈750ml per bottle) became a practical unit for both taxation and transport, shaping the eventual standardisation of bottle sizes. In 1795, France introduced the metric system, and while wine bottle sizes remained inconsistent for much of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the 12-bottle case (9 litres total) became a convenient metric equivalent, ensuring easier conversions between French and British trade units. This alignment facilitated commercial efficiency, reduced taxation complexities, and simplified logistics. The 750ml bottle was officially standardised in 1975 by the European Economic Community (EEC) to harmonise trade across Europe. This move ensured consistency in taxation, streamlined transport regulations, and supported growing international markets. In 1979, the United States -which historically used non-metric bottle sizes- adopted the 750ml standard under regulatory amendments to the Federal Alcohol Administration Act, aligning with global trade practices. The continued dominance of the 750ml bottle today reflects centuries of historical trade conventions, practical taxation structures, and regulatory mandates, all of which cemented its place as the global standard for still wines.

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